Hymenoptera: Lessons from Nature for the Future of Society and Technology

Constantly consider the universe as a living being, having a substance and a soul; and observe how all things are connected to a perception, the perception of this living being; and how all things act with a motion; and how all things are cooperating causes of all things that exist; also observe the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. – Marcus Aurelius –

Karl Marx was right, socialism works, but in the wrong species. – Edward O. Wilson –

If we examine social insects, like ants, does it make sense to consider a single ant an intelligent agent, or is the intelligence really in the entire colony, with a kind of brain composed of multiple ant brains and bodies interconnected by pheromone signals rather than electrical signals? – Stuart Russell –

Change will come slowly, across generations, because old beliefs die hard, even when proven false. – Edward O. Wilson –

Resistance is futile. – Borg Collective –

15–23 minutes

Prof. Dr. Maurício Pinheiro, Physics Department, UFMG

Hymenoptera: Eusocial Insects

Charles Darwin (1809-1882), Public domain. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

In the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) presented his revolutionary Theory of Evolution. In this book, he meticulously described numerous natural phenomena derived from careful observations that support the idea of Natural Selection as the primary mechanism responsible for evolutionary changes in species over time.

Among Darwin’s most emblematic observations in his revolutionary book was the phenomenon of ant slavery, a form of social parasitism. This intriguing form of interspecies interaction, in which one species exploits another to survive and thrive, is particularly notable in the case of Polyergus breviceps (red ants). They are specialists in parasitizing colonies of other species, especially black ants (Formica argentea or Formica fusca). The Polyergus breviceps are unable to care for their own young or perform basic tasks such as foraging. Instead, they invade the neighboring nests of Formica species, steal their pupae, and raise them as if they were their own. The pheromones produced by the queen and worker Polyergus act as a kind of ‘chemical mask,’ confusing the slave ants and making them accept the new environment as if it were their true home. The black ants, thus enslaved, end up working for the red ants, performing all the necessary tasks for the maintenance of the colony. This example demonstrates how adaptation to the environment can lead to the development of uniquely and surprisingly effective survival strategies in the animal world.

In his revolutionary book, Darwin described social parasitism, such as that of the Polyergus breviceps (red ants), which enslave black ants (Formica argentea or Formica fusca). Unable to care for themselves, the Polyergus invade neighboring colonies, steal pupae, and raise them as their own. The pheromones of the Polyergus confuse the enslaved ants, which end up working for the invading colony, illustrating unique survival strategies. While the evolutionary advantage of parasitism is evident for the enslaving ants, the enslaved ants may also benefit by facing less competition for resources within the parasitic colony and gaining access to resources that would otherwise be unavailable. Additionally, under the protection of the parasitic ants, they can escape adverse environmental pressures, such as lack of food or predator attacks. Photo by Alex Wild.
Edward O. Wilson, by Jim Harrison (CC BY 2.5). February 2003. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Advancing about a century, we arrive at entomologist Edward O. Wilson (1929-2021), who, in my opinion, was one of the most brilliant scientists of our era. He used evolutionary principles to explain the behavior of eusocial insects in the order Hymenoptera, which includes bees, wasps, and particularly their wingless descendants, ants (although termites are also eusocial insects, they belong to a different order, Blattodea, and are more closely related to cockroaches). The term ‘eusocial‘ used in this context derives from the Greek ‘eu-‘ (meaning ‘true’ or ‘good’) and ‘social,’ forming an academically applied term to describe the most advanced and complex form of social organization among insects.

**Diversity of Hymenoptera.** The term “Hymenoptera” originates from Ancient Greek, combining “hymen” (membrane) and “pteros” (wing), reflecting the distinctive characteristic of these insects: their thin, membranous wings. This taxonomic order includes bees, ants, and wasps, all with wings that have a membranous structure (including the queens and males of ants). There are over 153,000 described species and possibly up to a million unknown species. Some studies suggest that ants alone might represent 15% to 20% of the total biomass of terrestrial animals. By Termininja CCBY-SA4.0. February 5, 2020. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Wilson unveiled the complex mechanisms governing life within an ant colony, revealing an extraordinarily sophisticated and deeply organized social structure. In an ant colony, labor is distributed highly efficiently, with different castes (such as workers, caregivers, soldiers, and the queen) performing specific and essential functions for the smooth operation of the community. Except for the queen, ants act as automata (or slaves/robots/drones) genetically pre-programmed to function as cogs in a large machine, tirelessly dedicated to ensuring solely the survival and perpetuation of the queen’s genes.

The life cycle of ants begins with the queen laying eggs, which develop into larvae fed by the workers. After passing through several larval stages, the larvae transform into pupae, where metamorphic changes occur to form adults. The adults are divided into three types: workers, who care for the colony and perform various tasks; males, who are responsible for reproduction and die after the nuptial flight; and queens, who are solely dedicated to egg-laying and can live for many years. During specific periods, virgin queens and males participate in nuptial flights to mate and start new colonies, completing the life cycle. In the region where I live in Brazil, ant nuptial flights typically occur after a dry period, which precedes the heavy rains. The rains soften the soil, facilitating the establishment of new, fertilized queens in new colonies. This is the period of the invasion of tanajuras (winged ants), which are attracted to light. By ASU Ask A Biologist CCBY-SA3.0, June 18, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

The main genetic difference between the queen and the other ants in the colony relates to both sex and reproductive capability. Although the queen and the workers (which include caregivers, soldiers, and foragers) are diploid, sharing the same basic set of genes with two sets of chromosomes inherited from each parent, the queen is distinguished by her specialized development to produce fertile eggs, store sperm, and fertilize eggs throughout her life. In contrast, workers are sterile and perform specific roles within the colony. Males, who are haploid, possess only one set of chromosomes and have the sole function of reproduction. They develop from unfertilized eggs, carrying only the mother’s genetic material. This reproductive characteristic of insects is known as haplodiploidy.

“**”Ant Highway” Built on Pheromones.** A crucial evolutionary tool for Hymenoptera is pheromones. These insects primarily communicate through substances released to convey information. For example, when an ant discovers a food source, it releases a pheromone that marks the path back to the nest, allowing other ants to follow the trail and locate the food. Additionally, pheromones are used to coordinate other vital activities, such as defending the nest against predators and caring for the brood. By David Short of Windsor, UK CC BY 2.0, May 24, 2017. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

A sophisticated mechanism with profound implications for the evolution and natural selection of these insects is the reciprocal altruism of ants, evidenced by the sacrifice of soldiers to protect the colony or the tireless dedication of workers, even when enslaved, in caring for the brood. According to the theory of natural selection, individuals with traits that promote survival and reproduction are more likely to pass these traits to their offspring. The reciprocal altruism of ants, which involves helping other colony members even at personal cost, significantly increases the survival chances of the colony as a whole, whose perpetuation depends exclusively on the queen’s genes. In this way, the genes supporting this altruistic behavior are passed on to future generations, perpetuating the evolutionary cycle.

The figure shows a diagram illustrating the concept of reciprocal altruism between two parties, represented as “You” and “Me.” In the context of reciprocal altruism, one party (the initiator) performs an altruistic act with the expectation that the other party will reciprocate at a future time. The diagram emphasizes the mutual exchange of benefits, where both parties cooperate and help each other in a way that maximizes their mutual survival or success. It is a central concept in evolutionary biology and social behavior studies, demonstrating how cooperation can arise even among individuals who are not direct relatives. By Tomatose (CCBY-SA3.0). April 24, 2014. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

All the evolutionary mechanisms that characterize eusocial insects converge into a concept known as the “hive-mind,” which illustrates the extraordinary cooperation and organization of these beings. In summary, in an ant colony, each member—whether a worker, soldier, or queen—plays a specific and coordinated role to ensure the harmonious functioning and well-being of the community. Effective and complex coordination among individuals is facilitated by chemical signals that enable efficient communication and collective decision-making. What appears to be a form of centralized intelligence is, in reality, the result of simple and decentralized interactions among colony members, with each individual action contributing to the emergent behavior of the group. The hive-mind phenomenon is one of the greatest achievements of evolution, allowing these eusocial insects to thrive in various environments and tackle challenges that would be insurmountable for isolated individuals.

Generalizing

In a brilliant and bold generalization, Wilson argued that the same evolutionary processes shaping social interactions in these insects also influence, on a different scale, social behavior in complex animals, including humans, offering a new perspective on the origin and development of societies and cultures. He argued that all animal behavior, including human behavior, results from heredity and that the concept of free will, promoted by the sociological dogma of Tabula Rasa with roots in Rousseau’s Romantic Fallacy, fails to recognize the significant influence of genetics and evolution in shaping behavior and human capabilities. Sociologists and other “scientists” in the Humanities often reject scientific ideas from fields like biology and genetics, frequently due to a lack of understanding of these concepts. They tend to value rhetoric and subjectivism, as if ignorance were an acceptable justification for ignoring evidence.

Wilson also argued that the unit of selection is the gene, the fundamental element of heredity. According to him, natural selection typically focuses on the individual carrying a specific set of genes. When it comes to explaining the behavior of eusocial insects, Wilson proposed a new perspective: group selection, rather than the limited Kin Selection, as the main mechanism. He suggested that this idea had been preliminarily formulated by Darwin. Group selection considers that behaviors benefiting the group, even at the expense of the individual, can be favored by natural selection if they contribute to the survival and success of the group as a whole.

Alongside individual-level natural selection, group selection is responsible for Multi-Level evolution. While individual-level natural selection focuses on the survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits, group selection acts on the effectiveness of different groups competing with each other. This means that evolution can occur not only through the adaptation of individuals to their environmental conditions but also through the selection of the most efficient and cooperative groups. This approach highlights that evolution is a multifaceted process, where natural selection operates at different levels of organization, from the individual to the group and population. Thus, the interaction between individual selection and group selection contributes to the complexity and diversity of life forms observed in nature, demonstrating how different forms of selection can simultaneously shape evolution.

Edward O. Wilson’s work not only expanded our understanding of the world of ants but also profoundly influenced how we think about the evolution of social behavior in general, giving rise to a new discipline: Sociobiology. The social behavior of these insects has been extensively studied due to the impressive division of labor, communication, and cooperation among individuals within a colony. In the case of humans, one might argue that social norms reduce variation and competition at the individual level, thus shifting selection to the group level. In the case of humans, it can be argued that social norms reduce variation and competition at the individual level, thereby shifting selection to the group level. Comparisons between insect behavior and political systems like fascism, national socialism, and communism (essentially identical) are inevitable, given their apparent collective decision-making and lack of individual freedom.

A notable example is the success of China, which, over millennia and various dynastic changes, has always been in some way subject to Confucian doctrine, even after the communist revolution. Confucianism, with its values of order, hierarchy, and morality, has shaped China into a society that values the collective over the individual, promoting social harmony and obedience to authorities, whether in the figure of the emperor, seen as a representative of celestial order, or in the divinized image of Mao Tse Tung, who embodies unity and collective discipline (like ‘queen’ ants). This doctrine provided a stable and coherent foundation for governance and social organization, demonstrating how an ideological system can persist and adapt (evolving organically) over time, ensuring its continuity and stability in a constantly changing society. In this context, evolution is (still) predominantly cultural, and the collective organism in question is the State itself. This cultural and political system is radically different from Western societies, which value individual freedom and personal autonomy. While Western societies emphasize individualism and the importance of personal rights and choices, the state in systems based on collective cultural evolution may prioritize community cohesion and overall well-being, often at the expense of individual freedoms.

**Ancient Chinese Musical Instrument, Bianzhong**, photographed in the Music Room of the Chinese Music Department at National Tainan University of the Arts, Taiwan. The Bianzhong not only produces an imposing and harmonious sound but also reflects the principles of Confucian doctrine. Confucianism, with its emphasis on order, harmony, and respect for hierarchies, valued music as a means to cultivate moral virtues and promote social stability. Each bell of the Bianzhong must be precisely tuned to create a cohesive set, symbolizing the importance of harmony and coordination, where each individual contributes their best for the community as a whole. This concept is deeply aligned with Confucian ideals (and, in the West, with Roman Stoic thought), which emphasize cooperation and individual duty for collective well-being. Thus, the Bianzhong is not just a cultural artifact but also a reflection of the values and philosophy that shaped ancient Chinese society, highlighting how harmony and individual effort can strengthen the community. By Huang Zhen, CCBY4.0, July 1, 2019. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

When group evolution becomes more relevant than individual evolution, behaviors that promote group cohesion, cooperation, and survival are favored, even if they may harm individual success. This naturally occurs in human societies, as more cohesive and cooperative groups tend to have greater evolutionary success, surpassing those with less internal solidarity, such as in democratic regimes. Although individual-level selection within a group continues to favor the most capable individuals, often leaders, traits that benefit the group, such as altruism and personal sacrifice, can evolve and persist, leading to the formation of castes and social hierarchies, similar to what occurs among hymenoptera, despite these traits being disadvantageous for the isolated individual.

In summary, the eternal conflict between altruism and individualism is a recurring theme in multilevel biological evolution and is at the root of the dilemma between collective well-being and individual rights, which underlies tensions in social and political systems. In societies that culturally evolve to value unity and collective order, the state tends to become the primary mechanism of control and coordination, in contrast to Western societies that promote individual autonomy as a fundamental principle. This duality has deep biological roots, reflected in our genes and influencing how we interact and form societies.

Collective Mind in AI

In recent years, researchers in artificial intelligence have increasingly turned to the social behavior of Hymenoptera insects as a source of inspiration for designing more effective and adaptable systems. The concept of collective intelligence, inspired by the swarms and colonies of eusocial insects, has already become a reality in drone shows, where a large number of drones are coordinated to create impressive and synchronized visual displays. In these shows, each drone operates autonomously but follows a set of rules and algorithms that enable them to work together as a single system. The coordination of drones is managed by electromagnetic signals (similar to pheromones) and overseen by collective intelligence systems, which combine sensor data and sophisticated AI algorithms. This ensures that the drones move synchronously, create complex patterns, and perform precise maneuvers.

Collective intelligence is used in drone shows to create impressive and coordinated visual displays, where each drone operates autonomously based on shared algorithms.

On the other hand, the concept of autonomous weapons with collective intelligence is particularly concerning. While the technology used to control these systems is similar to that employed in drone shows, the application is drastically different. In drone shows, coordination and precision are used to create fascinating and safe visual displays. However, when applied to autonomous weapons, this same technology allows multiple combat units to operate in a coordinated and autonomous manner, making decisions about targets and strategies without direct human intervention. This raises serious risks and ethical questions, as the ability of autonomous weapons to act independently could lead to unforeseen and potentially devastating decisions. The possibility of programming errors, system failures, or malicious manipulation (hacking) of these weapons could have severe consequences, including collateral damage and escalations in conflicts. Thus, while the technology can create stunning displays in a controlled and peaceful context, its application in combat scenarios presents complex challenges and high risks, requiring careful consideration and regulation.

Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

AI researchers have also explored the use of optimization algorithms based on the foraging behavior of ants to optimize logistics, network routing, transportation, data mining, and other computational problems. The idea behind these algorithms is to mimic ants’ ability to find the shortest path between the nest and food sources by depositing pheromones to mark the route and following the trails of other ants.

Conclusion

The use of social behavior from these insects in AI has opened new avenues for designing more efficient and adaptable systems, but it’s important to recognize the limitations of these analogies. Insects and AI systems differ in various ways, including their capacity to process information, communicate, and adapt to changing environments. Therefore, while the social behavior of Hymenoptera insects can be a valuable source of inspiration, it’s essential to carefully consider the applicability and limitations of these analogies in the development of AI systems.

Two questions remain: Are we evolving to become like Hymenoptera insects, and will we someday be enslaved by our states or even by artificial intelligence? Currently, we are driving a bus towards a precipice, as Stuart Russell pointed out. Our only hope is that we run out of fuel before reaching it, giving us a chance to turn back or build a bridge. Resistance is futile, until a more advanced species like 8472 emerges…

#AI #Hymenoptera #EusocialInsects #ArtificialIntelligence #CollectiveIntelligence #CharlesDarwin #EdwardOWilson #SocialParasitism #SwarmBehavior #OptimizationAlgorithms #AutonomousSystems #HiveMind #WestVersusEast #Evolution #NaturalSelection #ReciprocalAltruism #AltruismVersusIndividualism #MultiLevelNaturalSelection

Suggested Reading:

Darwin, C. (1831). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (Vol. 11859). London: John Murray.

Hölldobler, B., & Wilson, E. O. (1990). The ants. Harvard University Press.

Wilson, E. O. (2000). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Harvard University Press.

Drouin, J. M. (2019). A Philosophy of the Insect. Columbia University Press.

http://alaorchaves.com.br/altruismo-reciproco-sua-origem-biologica/

The scientific honors of Edward O. Wilson include:

Source: Wikipedia

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